Management Theory Review: Co-Existence of Functionalism and Exploitation in Social Institutions and Groups

The Three Main Sociological Perspectives

From Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, 2007. Understanding Social Problems, 5th edition.

Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives or paradigms with which to view our social world.

A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon. Theories are created based on a set of assumptions about the phenomenon under observation and explanation. Thus theories are developed under paradigms or perspectives. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live.

According to Mooney, Knox, and Schacht (2007), Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective (sometimes called the interactionist perspective) . Each perspective offers a variety of explanations about the social world and human behavior.

1. Functionalist Perspective

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.

The functionalist perspective emphasizes the benefits of each part of the society for the society as a whole. New institutions and practices are created either to create new benefits or to minimize the problems with which the society is suffering.

Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion.

Sociologists have also identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents. It is described as latent function and explains additional benefits due to which more people use that institution.

2. Conflict Perspective

The functionalist perspective views society as composed of different parts working together. In contrast, the conflict perspective views society as composed of different groups competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our social world by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement. For example, feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a hierarchical system of organization controlled by men. The scholars of feminist theory demand that existing economic, political, and social structures be changed to eliminate disadvantages of women are suffering in the current arrangements. (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p.xii).

The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx. Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production (e.g., factories, farms, businesses); and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages.

The division of society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “have-nots”—is beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn only subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the wealthy owners.

According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the institutions of society to their advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as an “opiate of the masses” in that it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the working-class lifestyle and focuses the workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife rather than on such worldly concerns as living conditions. In essence, religion diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being rewarded in heaven for living a moral life rather than on questioning their exploitation.

The conflict perspective is also explained as exploitation perspective.

3. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of society, such as institutions and large social groups, influence the social world. This level of sociological analysis is called macro sociology.

Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism reflects the micro-sociological perspective, and was largely influenced by the work of sociologists George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead, and Erving Goffman. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by definitions and meanings that are created and maintained through symbolic interaction with others.

Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings in social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that humans define each situation for themselves and respond to their definition of the situation. Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self is shaped by social interaction. We develop our self-concept by observing how others interact with us label us. By observing how others view us, we see a reflection ourselves that Cooley calls the “looking glass self.”

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-socialproblems/chapter/12-2-sociological-perspectives-on-work-and-the-economy/

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Cultural_Sociology_and_Social_Problems/Minority_Studies_(Dunn)/08%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms/8.01%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms_and_Perspectives

The Fourth Perspective in Sociology Proposed

Co-Existence of Functionalism and Exploitation in Social Institutions and Groups - The Fourth Paradigm - Narayana Rao K.V.S.S. (1 January 2022)

It is better to use the perspective or the assumption of functionalism and exploitation being simultaneously present in certain proportions in each social institution and group based behavior.

In democratic political system, each political party may be having policies that provide benefit to the society as a whole but also may be promoting policies and practices that can be described as exploitation of certain sections of the society. Whenever exploitation increases beyond a level, the fight against the exploitation also increases and the conflict between the exploited and exploiters becomes visible. This is the theory of Karl Marx. Each incident of exploitation gives rise to conflict. The conflict becomes intensified with increasing incidents of exploitation and it may reach society level. In certain cases, the exploited can over throw the group of the exploiting people and totally remove it from the society. In this paradigm we may see some groups emerging initially itself as exploiting group and survive for certain. They may even add some behaviors to the group activity and provide benefits that may impress the society a whole. Therefore, society may have predominantly functionalist institutions and groups, predominantly groups publicly labeled as exploiting groups and groups with different proportions of functionalism and exploitation. Sociological theories have to explain for each institution the functional benefits provided by it, the exploitation being suffered by certain sections of the people and activities of these people to fight the exploitation.

See this opinion regarding Vedic Society by a Sociology Professor.

"In this context, we should remember that every aspect of culture is not an asset. There are liabilities in every culture. If assets have to be preserved, then liabilities should be weeded out. Only an objective and value-free mind can do this job, not devotees. A prejudiced mind will fail to comprehend the liabilities. That is why one is forced to ask a few disturbing questions regarding the normative and prescriptive socio-political system existing in the Vedic period. It is because of aforesaid realities that one is sceptical about the whole idea of Vedic education."

Vivek Kumar, Professor in the department of sociology, JNU, New Delhi, 15 March 2019

https://www.firstpost.com/india/theres-no-way-to-justify-a-vedic-education-board-6266981.html

The liabilities referred to by Prof. Vivek Kumar are the exploitative elements of a social institution as identified by him or as reported to him by some others. We will be able to collect data on the exploitative side of various social institutions along with the functional or beneficial aspects.

Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis: Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life

Gibson Burrell, Gareth Morgan

Routledge, 19-Jun-2019 - Social Science - 444 pages

Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis argues that social theory can usefully be conceived in terms of four broad paradigms, based upon different sets of meta-theoretical assumptions with regard to the nature of social science and the nature of society. The four paradigms - Functionalist, Interpretive, Radical Humanist and Radical Structuralist, generate their own distinctive approach to the analysis of social life.

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=aUagDwAAQBAJ

Management Theory Review

Pages

January 1, 2022

Co-Existence of Functionalism and Exploitation in Social Institutions and Groups - A Paradigm