December 20, 2024

Project Management - Introduction - Revision Article

Based on Meredith and Mantel Book

Definition: The Project Management Institute has defined a project as "A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service."

Program refers to an exceptionally large, long-range objective that is broken down into a set of projects. The projects are divided into tasks. Tasks are further broken down into work packages. Work packages contain work units.

Project Management - Definition and Objectives



In the past several decades many organizations are using project management as a basis to achieve the objectives of the organzation. Project management approach is providing organizations with powerful tools that improve the ability to plan, implement, and control activities as the utilization of resources.

The development of the techniques and practices of project management were developed more in the military organization. Meredith and Mantel give credit to government and military organizations for developing project management approach.

The three project objectives are stated as performance (scope), time and cost.

Definition: The Project Management Institute has defined a project as "A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service"

Distinction Between Program, Project, Task and Work Packages: The military is the source of these terms. Program refers to an excetionally large, long-range objective that is broken down into a set of projects. The projects are divided into tasks. Tasks are further broken down into work packages. Work packages contain work units.

Attributes That Characterise A Project:



Purpose: A project has a well-defined set of desired end results.

Life cycle: Project will have slow beginning, size gets buildup. Peaks, then declines and has to be terminated on some day. Either it is handed to the client or it is phased into the normal, ongoing operations of their organization itself.

Interdependencies: A project has relations with other project being undertaken by the organization for various facilities. It also will have relations with various functions of the organization like marketing, accounting, finance, human resoures management etc.

Uniqueness: every project being a one time activity has some elements that are unique. Project managers will have many exceptions or new issues that crop up that they have to manage.

Conflict: Projects compete with other projects as well as requirements of various functional departments of the organization for resources and personnel. Also, project managers have to manage the conflict between the demands of the client for more and features and changes, parent organization for profit, some demands made by public where the project is located, and the project employees’ demands.

Why Project Management?



Project management focuses the responsibility and authority for the attainment of the goals of the project on an individual or small group. The project form of organization allows the manager to be responsive to:
1. the client
2. environment
3. identify problems at an early and correct them in a timely fashion.
4. ensures that managers of the separate tasks or activities of a project do not optimize their individual tasks at the expense of the total project. Suboptimization is avoided.
The Structure of the Textbook by Meredith and Mantel
It begins with the creative idea that launches most projects and end with termination of the project. The authors wrote in the 5th edition that creation of initial concept of the project was universally ignored in books project management. In their book , Meredith and Mantel included two appendices on topics creativity and idea generation and technological forecasting. In the 5th edition they moved these topics from the textbook to internet. The appendices are now available in http://www.wiley.com/college/projectmgt/


12 Vital Rules for Project Managers



1. You have to understand the project purpose and context.
2. You need to identify the stakeholders in the project and understand their wants.
3. You have to accept and use the political nature of organizations in allocation of resources.
4. You have to recognize the conflicts that are arising as the project is progressing.
5. As a project manager you need to lead from the front.
6. You have to understand what “success” means for the project every day.
7. You have to build and maintain a cohesive team.
8. Remember enthusiasm and despair are both infectious.
9. Looking forward and planning is important. One look forward is worth two looks back.
10. Always be sure of what you are trying to do.
11. Manage time – Use time carefully or it will use you.
12. Plan, plan, plan
Based on the reading given in the book “Lessons for an Accidental Profession,” by J.K. Pinto and O.P. Kharbanda, Business Horizons, March-April 1995.

------------------------
Open Access Book

https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/projectmanagementforconstructionanddeconstruction/

______________________________________________________________________________
Bibliography
Software Project Management - Summary Artlces
Chapter 1
Chapter 2 Software Lifecycle
Chapter 3 Project Planning
Chapter 4 Requirments Management
Chapter 5 Risk Management
Chapter 6 Cost Management
Chapter 7 Time and Schedule Management
Chapter 8 Measurement and Metrics
Chapter 9 Configuration Management
______________________________________________________________________________
Original post http://knol.google.com/k/narayana-rao/project-management-introduction/ 2utb2lsm2k7a/ 2140






Ud. 21.12.2024
Pub. 27.11.2011
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December 18, 2024

Kaizen Costing, KAIZENshiro and Kaizen Cost Management

Top 100 Management Theory Article


                                        Narayana Rao K.V.S.S. on Cover Page of Business Today 
October 22 - November 6, 1997


Prof. Yasuhiro Monden and Prof. Kazuki Hamada explained  the key points in Toyota’s  Cost Management System in  book entitled “Toyota Management System: Linking the Seven Key Functional Areas”.

In the text of the book the authors talk about the basics of Target Costing (Toyota calls it Genka Kikaku) and Kaizen Costing (Genka Kaizen). Toyota puts a lot of work into  planning the cost and monitoring  actual costs associated with a vehicle. Just as industrial engineers watch  every second  on the shop floor to identify waste, every dollar in a component is analyzed for improvement in vehicles as well. Accounting and measurement alone will not produce results.  Measurement is just a piece of the improvement process  just as “Check” is only a part of the Plan-Do-Check-Action cycle for improvement. A critical piece of Toyota’s strength in terms of financial results lies in the realm of the overall cost planning process and the structured VA, VE, & VI activities that occur during the life cycle of the program.
https://www.theleanedge.org/2386-art-smalley-financial-benefits/  Not available now.



In the Japanese language Kaizen Costing is called ‘Genkakaizen’ with ‘genka’ meaning ‘cost’, ‘kai’ meaning ‘change’ and ‘zen’ meaning ‘good’. In other words Kaizen means change to good ways and good results. In english it is termed  continuous improvement.  Imai (1986) in his glossary of terms defines Kaizen in relation to the workplace as meaning ‘continuous improvement involving everyone – managers and workers alike’. Imai (1986) argues that a Kaizen strategy involves relatively small improvements. Monden and Hamada (1991, p. 17) suggest that ‘Kaizen Costing is the system to support the cost reduction process in the manufacturing phase of the existing product … Kaizen refers to continuous accumulations of small betterment activities rather than innovative improvement’. They also argue that target costing and Kaizen Costing can be linked together and ‘constitute the total cost management system of Japanese companies’


Kaizen eno Yon Dankai - Improvement in 4 Steps - History of Kaizen in Japan


Kaizen costing is variant of standard costing. Standard costing specifies a cost target for the production team for the coming period. Normally standard cost is set for an year. It will be revised every year. It is constant for an year as a planning device. Any variances from it are examined and the reasons are identified and understood.

Kaizen costing is cost planning that incorporates kaizen philosophy or philosophy of continuous improvement and implementation of the principles of learning effect.

According to learning effect principle, the average cost of an item is certain percentage of average cost of earlier volume. It is expressed  as  volume of production and sales doubles(X becomes 2X), the average cost of total sales (2X) is say, 90% of the average cost of producing and selling X units. There is a learning effect in every activity undertaken by the organization right from the lowest cadre employee to the CEO and Board and cost comes down.

Japanese implemented this cost reduction philosophy in a systematic manner. They made planned reductions in the standard costs of an item every year. So the production and sales team have to plan their department and activity cost to achieve reduction in standard cost. The idea was extended by them to monthly costs. They said we cannot achieve cost reduction in one day. So having a standard cost for an year and then asking for reduction in it next year is not the right approach for cost reduction. They came with a reducing cost target for every month. Such a reducing cost target for every month demands some effort on cost reduction by departments every month. Hence cost reduction is on the monthly agenda of every department in the company. Kaizen costing is providing the monthly cost target information and accounting for actuals during the month.



KAIZENshiro Budgeting


KaizenShiro Cost = Cost of Non-Productivity  = Cost of Not-Improving-Productivity





Total cost of an organization has KaizenShiro Cost. If  KaizenShiro cost is estimated, plans to identify projects that reduce it can be developed and implemented. Kaizen cost management is driven by KaizenShiro projects. Project identification and formulation is driven by KaizenShiro cost.



KAIZENshiro Budgeting is  the new paradigm for planning and developing synchronous and profitable operations for Speed-Based Target Profit Planning (SBTPP).  KAIZENshiro Budgeting is  budgeting the projects to  cost of losses and waste, which  are feasible to be improved for the year for which the budgeting is done.  Improvement is achieved by developing  and implementing  the most effective and efficient Strategic KAIZEN and KAIKAKU projects, supported by daily improvements of Gemba kaizen. Thus engineering inventions and innovations are utilized as well as ideas of shop floor operators, supervisors and engineers who are focusing on delivering to market demand utilzing the shop and supply chain capacity.






Kaizen Cost Management





For More Detailed Reading


Kaizen Costing and Value Analysis

Control Measures for Kaizen Costing - Formulation and Practical Use of the Half-Life Model

Introduction to Kaizen Budgeting

 B. Modarress;  A. Ansari; D. L. Lockwood,  “Kaizen costing for lean manufacturing: a case study” International Journal of Production Research, Volume 43, Issue 9 May 2005 , pages 1751 - 1760.




Included in Knol Handbook of Industrial Engineering - 2019

Index of articles on Cost Accounting, Costing and Cost Management


Full List of Articles on Kaizen

Kaizen eno Yon Dankai - Improvement in 4 Steps - History of Kaizen in Japan

Rules for Successful Kaizen Management


Kaizen - Engaging Front-Line Staff in Continuous Improvements - Industrial Engineering

Leading and Managing Kaizen Events

Agile Kaizen

Kaizen - The Japanese Style Productivity Improvement Methodology

Industrial Engineering is Kaizen in Engineering

Kobetsu Kaizen - Focused Improvement of Machine and Machine Work in TPM

Front Line Kaizen for Product and Process Industrial Engineering


Gadget-based improvement is widespread as improvement activities that can not only eliminate losses but also inspire the workplace.

Karakuri Kaizen - Introduction

Industrial Engineering is Kaizen Engineering

Toyota Kaizen Methods: Six Steps to Improvement - 2010 - Book Information

Kaizens - Production Improvement Ideas Implemented - India - Kaizen Eye

Kaizen Assembly: Designing, Constructing, and Managing a Lean Assembly Line - Book Information

Kaikaku: The Power and Magic of Lean : a Study in Knowledge Transfer - 2004 - Norman Bodek - Book Information


_________________________________________________________________________________


Originally published on Knol
http://knol.google.com/k/narayana-rao/kaizen-costing-and-kaizen-cost/2utb2lsm2k7a/  381  7500+ page views


Updated on 19.12.2024,   9.11.2024,  8 May 2019, 27 January 2012


Posted by at 11:30 PM 4 comments
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Cost Behavior Analysis and Relevant Costs Concept


Cost behavior is identified by estimating cost functions. Cost function is mathematical relationship between cost and the level of an activity. Examples of activities used in cost accounting to develop cost functions are units of output, direct manufacturing labor hours, machine hours etc. A cost function can be depicted on a graph by showing activity level on the x-axis and cost on the y-axis.

Two basic assumptions are used in estimating cost functions.


1. Variations in the cost under consideration are explained by variations in the level of a single activity (Single activity is sufficient to capture the variation in the cost).
2. Cost behavior is adequately approximated by a linear function within the relevant range. (Even though the function is shown on the graph from zero to infinity, the decision maker knows that the graph is valid only between some range and not from zero to infinity).

Cost Estimation Procedures


1. Industrial Engineering Method
2. Conference Method
(W. Wichelll, Realistic cost Estimating for Manufacturing, 2nd ed., Society for Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, 1989)
3. Account Analysis Method
4. Quantitative Analysis Method
a. High-Low Method
b. Regression Analysis

Learning Curves


Learning has an effect on efficiency and productivity. The effect was first identified and described in aircraft industry. As workers become more familiar with their tasks, their efficiency improves. Managers learn how to improve the allocation and scheduling of the work among available operators and machines. Some of the machines are provided facilitating devices like jigs and fixtures to increase production. As a result of improved efficiency, unit costs decrease as output increases. This effect is nonlinear and in cost estimating for future this effect needs to be considered.


Cost estimation related thesis at Ohio



Originally posted at
http://knol.google.com/k/narayana-rao/cost-behavior-and-cost-estimation/2utb2lsm2k7a/3158



Ud. 19.12.2024
Pub. 9.12.2011







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November 8, 2024

Kaizen eno Yon Dankai - Improvement in 4 Steps - History of Kaizen in Japan



The Economic and Scientific Section (ESS) group was given the  task with improving Japanese management skills and Lowell Mellen was invited to Japan to properly install the Training Within Industry (TWI) programs in 1951.

In 1951, even before the arrival of Mellen, the ESS group had a training film to introduce the three TWI "J" programs (Job Instruction, Job Methods and Job Relations)---the film was titled "Improvement in 4 Steps" (Kaizen eno Yon Dankai).

The term Kaizen was not popular in Toyota before 1950. It is only after the TWI courses that the term became popular.



Ud. 9.11.2023
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October 24, 2024

Potential Business and Profit Opportunity in Personalization in Goods and Services - $2 Trillion Global Business Opportunity

 


a new BCG book by Mark Abraham and David Edelman, published by HBR, called Personalized: Customer Strategy in the Age of AI. 

The book demystifies personalization, distilling it into five promises consumers expect companies to keep in order to deepen customer relationships. These include “empower me,” “know me,” “reach me,” “show me,” and “delight me.” Delivering on each one requires a human touch and the right technology. 


https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/2-trillion-opportunity-boston-consulting-group-nsxte/










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October 21, 2024

Supply Chain Manager - Jobs - Job Descriptions

 



21.10.2024

Supply Chain Manager, Castings, Semi

Job Category Supply Chain

Location Fremont, California

Req. ID 229746

APPLY - Currently Required.

https://www.tesla.com/careers/search/job/supply-chain-manager-castings-semi-229746



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October 17, 2024

Resource Based View Definition of Management - Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.

 

Management is doing things acquiring and using resources.  -  Prof. Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.  - 18.10.2024


A manager or an entrepreneur visualizes doing a thing, for example in business, it would be exchanging goods or services. He may produce the goods or services or he may procure them and offer to customers. To put the visualized idea into practice he requires resources. He has to acquire them and then use them to do business and pay for the services of each factor or resource used in the business. Theoretically, the entrepreneur only needs the idea which is acceptable to the resource providers. 

The manager makes resource requirement plan. Initially it is an unconstrained resource requirement plan. He will list all the ideal resources. But as he tries to acquire resources constraints become visible and the manager has to modify the resource requirements to use available resources or resources that he could acquire.


(C)  2024 Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.  


Earlier Explanation by me.


Definition of Management: Its Nature and Purpose


Management of an organization is the process of establishing objectives and goals of the organization periodically, designing the work system and the organization structure, and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, accomplish their aims and objectives and goals of the organization effectively and efficiently (Narayana Rao). (3rd December 2008, Version 1 of this article)


Management of an organization is the process of establishing objectives and goals of the organization periodically, designing the work system and the organization structure, and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups in combination with capital equipment and current assets (working capital), accomplish their aims and objectives and goals of the organization effectively and efficiently (Narayana Rao). (24 January 2016).

The above definition was a modification of the definition given by Koontz and O'Donnell.

The definition implies the following.

(i) Management is a process.
(ii) Management applies to every kind of organization, government, profit making, or nonprofit making.
(iii) It applies to managers at all levels in the organization.
(iv) Management is concerned with effectiveness and efficiency.  Effectiveness is producing the product or service the customer wants in business context with the required functional benefits and product attributes at the price he is willing to pay. Efficiency is minimization of resources to produce the saleable output.

Weirich and Koontz

Weihrich and Koontz defined Management and explained it as follows in the tenth edition of their book Management: A Global Perspective (p.4).

"Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims." This definition needs to be expanded:

1. As managers, people carry out the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.
2. Management applies to any kind of organization.
3. It applies to managers at all organizational levels.
4. The aim of all managers is the same: to create a surplus.
5. Managing is concerned with productivity; this implies effectiveness and efficiency.



Functions of Management



The process of management can be better understood by breaking it down into the five basic functions of a manager – planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. All the management concepts, principles, theories and techniques can be grouped under these five functions.

Professor Narayana Rao suggests planning, organizing, resourcing, executing and controlling as the appropriate steps for operational approach.

The resource point of view is emphasized in the RBV Definition of Management.

No doubt planning is required to establish the feasibility of the idea and to make a list of resources required. After resources are acquired execution of processes has to be there and control has to be there to modify plans based on achieved results to reach the expected final result for a period.

Management - Definition and Process



Top 25 Management Theory Articles - Online

Marketing Communication: Channels and Promotion Tools
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/marketing-communication-channels-and.html

Organizational Buying Processes and Buying Behavior
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/organizational-buying-processes-and.html


Marketing Strategy - Marketing Process - Kotler's Description
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/marketing-strategy-marketing-process.html




Evolution of Management Thought and Theory - Review Notes
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/evolution-of-management-thought-and.html

Human Resource Management - Introduction

Marketing Strategy - Differentiating and Positioning the Market Offering


Philip Kotler - Keller Definition and Explanation of Marketing Management for 21st Century - 14th Edition
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2015/01/philip-kotler-keller-definition-and.html




Marketing and New Product Development - Kotler and Keller's Book Chapter Summary
http://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/marketing-and-new-product-development.html


Communication: Importance and Definition

Analyzing Competitors - Market Research and Analysis

Concepts and Techniques for Crafting and Executing Strategy - Summary of Chapters - Strickland



Management - Definition and Process

Work Analysis and Design -Bernardin HRM Chapter - Review Notes

Defining Marketing for the New Realities - Kotler - Keller 15 Edition - Summary

Market Segmentation and Selection of Target Segments

Supply Chain Management - Coordination



Selling Process - 10 Steps

Kotler and Keller - Marketing Management - Brief - All Chapters - Core Themes

Operations Strategy and Competitiveness - Review Notes
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Management - Definition and Process


Definition of Management: Its Nature and Purpose



New
Management is doing things acquiring and using resources.  -  Prof. Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.  - 18.10.2024
Resource Based View Definition of Management - Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.


Management of an organization is the process of establishing objectives and goals of the organization periodically, designing the work system and the organization structure, and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, accomplish their aims and objectives and goals of the organization effectively and efficiently (Narayana Rao). (3rd December 2008, Version 1 of this article)


Management of an organization is the process of establishing objectives and goals of the organization periodically, designing the work system and the organization structure, and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups in combination with capital equipment and current assets (working capital), accomplish their aims and objectives and goals of the organization effectively and efficiently (Narayana Rao). (24 January 2016).

The above definition was a modification of the definition given by Koontz and O'Donnell.

The definition implies the following.

(i) Management is a process.
(ii) Management applies to every kind of organization, government, profit making, or nonprofit making.
(iii) It applies to managers at all levels in the organization.
(iv) Management is concerned with effectiveness and efficiency.  Effectiveness is producing the product or service the customer wants in business context with the required functional benefits and product attributes at the price he is willing to pay. Efficiency is minimization of resources to produce the saleable output.

Weirich and Koontz

Weihrich and Koontz defined Management and explained it as follows in the tenth edition of their book Management: A Global Perspective (p.4).

"Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims." This definition needs to be expanded:

1. As managers, people carry out the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.
2. Management applies to any kind of organization.
3. It applies to managers at all organizational levels.
4. The aim of all managers is the same: to create a surplus.
5. Managing is concerned with productivity; this implies effectiveness and efficiency.



Functions of Management



The process of management can be better understood by breaking it down into the five basic functions of a manager – planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. All the management concepts, principles, theories and techniques can be grouped under these five functions.

Professor Narayana Rao suggests planning, organizing, resourcing, executing and controlling as the appropriate steps for operational approach.



Management Functions at Different Organizational Unit Levels



All managers carry out managerial functions. However the proportion of time spent for each function may differ from level to level. The top managers may spend more time on planning in choosing the corporate objectives and business unit objectives and in developing the work system and the organization structure. The first level supervisors may spend more time in leading the staff under them and in doing operational control.



Managerial Skills



Managers require four kinds of skills: technical, human, conceptual and design.

1. Technical skills are knowledge of and proficiency in working with the tools and specific techniques on given processes. For example, mechanics work with tools, and their supervisors should have the ability to train them how to use these tools and periodically evaluate and improve the skills of the staff under them. Similarly accounts use various formats of accounting records like journal, ledger, trial balance, balance sheet and use various procedures like entry, posting, reconciliation and reversing etc. and the supervisor of the accountants has to know these records and procedures to train the staff under him and evaluate their work for accuracy. The first level supervisors have to demonstrate or use their technical skills on a day to day basis as managers.  In an MBA curriculum number of technical disciplines are taught like marketing, purchasing, production, accounting, human resource recruiting and training, industrial engineering etc.

2. Human skills are the concepts, methods and techniques that facilitate working with people. Managers have to create an environment in which people feel comfortable, motivated, secure, and committed to the objectives and goals of the group or the organizational unit in which they are members. Organizational behavior is the subject taught in MBA curriculums to provide human skills.

3. Conceptual skill is the ability to see the “big picture.” It is the ability to recognize significant issues or elements in a situation and to understand the relationships among these key issues.

Concept skills are better understood or interpreted as business conceptual skills. Every manager at every level must be able to see his customer, his suppliers and his associates in the organization, superiors, subordinates and peers. He should be able to visualize the motivations of these agents to engage with him and the value that they are seeking and the value that they are willing to exchange. Every manager must be able to visualize how the business of the group he is managing is going to survive and prosper. Whenever managers cannot see this clearly, he will be failing in his managerial responsibility and the group is going to suffer.

4. Design skill is the ability to solve problems in ways that benefit the enterprise. To be effective managers in the organization must be capable of doing more than just seeing a problem (If they merely confine their attention to the problem, they become ‘problem watchers’ and they will not fulfill their responsibility). They Must have, in addition to the skill of identifying key problems, the skill of a good design engineer to work out a practical solution to a problem in the light of the realities they face in the situation. Solution design skills are synthesis skills. When a problem arises analytical skills may be used to identify various dimensions of the problems and possible solutions to each of these dimensions. But to solve the problem, a synthesis of all possible and useful alternatives has to be developed. Skills of synthesis are important in solution design.


The intensity or frequency with which these groups of skills are applied varies with the managerial level.

First line supervisors use their technical skills on a day to day to basis to observe the working of the staff in the department or section and guide them in carrying out the allotted tasks as per the specification of the customer or the design and in proper use of machines and tools. Quality and quantity control on a continuous basis becomes the important responsibility of first line supervisors and technical skills play a very important part in this role. Human skills are also important to both to get the task done and to make the operator feel happy and satisfied in completing the task, receiving the reward and also by the various physical facilities provided to him to take care of his professional and personal needs at the work place.

At the top level, conceptual skills and design skills have to be employed to recognize the opportunities and threats that keep on emerging in the environment. Solutions to benefit from the opportunities and contain the ill effects of threats have to be developed.

My article in my blog on the same topic
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References

Seven Strategy Questions: A Simple Approach for Better Execution

Robert Simons, Professor, HBS
2010
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=tIYrly9QjTIC




Video Introduction to Management

___________

___________

Related Knols


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Original post - http://knol.google.com/k/narayana-rao/management-definition-and-process/ 2utb2lsm2k7a/ 547

Revision Article for 22 January
2nd article: Global and Comparative Management

January - Management Knowledge Revision Schedule


Updated  18.10.2024, 4 June 2019  22 January 2017, 24 Jan 2016,  19 July 2014, 2 Dec 2013
Posted by at 8:33 PM 6 comments
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October 12, 2024

Industrial Engineering and Scientific Management in Japan

Japanese scholars and business men embraced scientific management, efficiency movement, and industrial engineering right from the inception and excelled in implementing it and reaped great rewards in economic as well as academic spheres. In the process there were many innovations in the subject on the Japanese soil.

Early Adoption of Scientific Management by Japan


Late nineteenth century Japan was a rational shopper for products, technology and organizational models[1]. Scientific management of F.W. Taylor was quickly spotted by Japanese and was translated into Japanese in 1912, within one year of its publication in USA in 1911 [1]. It is an astonishing fact that one million copies were sold to workers in a special edition for workers. Yoichi Ueno and Araki Toichiro were enthusiastic supporters. Yoichi Ueno was responsible for organizing the Industrial Efficiency Research Institute (Sngyo Noritsu Kenkyujo) in 1921.

Motion analysis techniques were used in Japanese companies in starting in 1913. Firms like Mitsubishi Electric and Nippon Electric took the lead. In the area of textiles, Kannebo and Toyobo took the initiative.

Industrial engineering was organized as a subject that increases the education and skills of workmen in Japan. Improving the education and skill of a workman is a dominant concept in Japanese industrial set up compared to the slogan of deskilling in US systems. Also, the Efficiency Research Institute was an initiative of Harmony and Cooperation Society (Kyochokai) formed in 1919 by the state and leading corporations of Japan. Industrial engineering has a more welcome environment in Japan to deliver its scientific potential.

Zenjiro Imaoka [3]  explained Industrial Engineering as a concept for improving the efficiency of production and is the driving force that brings success in mass production today. OR (Operations Research) is an approach to explore optimization using statistical figures and linear programming. Both of them are included in supply chain flow [2].  IE (industrial engineering) is a concept that was first structured as a concept to enable the improvement of production efficiency. Various scientific approaches started by Taylor were tried out to improve production efficiency by various companies. During the Civil War, the U.S. promoted the standardization of firearms and parts of munitions. As a result, the U.S. succeeded in the mass production of parts by realizing low-cost and short-lead time production. The engine of the further success of mass production was the concept of IE. IE was employed by Henry Ford for producing the Model T Ford and that was a starting point of growth for auto industry.  The base of business administration and management consulting methodology of today started with IE. We can also say that IE is a technology that combines manufacturing techniques and product technologies or it synchronizes management resources. If IT (information technology) can be used together with IE (manufacturing technologies), information and communication will be combined with production systems, leading to the efficient flow in supply chain management which resulted in supply chain innovations such as CALS, BPR, ECR, and QR.


Contribution of JMA in Promoting and Using IE and Scientific Management in Japan

Scientific Management began in 1880s and spread quickly around the world. In Japan, this concept evolved into the pursuit of efficiency, and in 1942 the Japan Management Association (JMA) was established as an organization to promote that concept, based on IE and other management methods.

JMA set three basic principles to govern all its activities.

1. Japan-oriented strategy toward efficiency.
2. Execution than vacuous theory
3. Priority basis than all-round policy



Contribution of Taichi Ohno and Shigeo Shingo

An interesting point is that Taichi Ohno did not accept the present method as the best method. He advocated that it can be improved today or tomorrow. It is only a present standard operating procedure subject to improvement today or tomorrow. He wanted every body to believe in progress and improvement of methods.



Total Productive Maintenance - Japan Management Association ( Zero Breakdowns for Elimination of  delays in material flow)













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References

1. Oxford handbook of work and organization, OUP 2005
2. http://www.lean-manufacturing-japan.com/scm-terminology/ieor-industrial-engineering-operational-research.html
3. Zenjiro Imaoka, Understand Supply Chain Management through 100 words,
KOUGYOUCHOUSAKAI


________________________________________________________

Bibliography

Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan
By William M. Tsutsui, Princeton University Press, 2001
http://books.google.com/books/p/princeton?id=Np9Y0x-b37sC


Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan - A Review
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3024/is_2_11/ai_n28809136/

___________________________________________________________________
Related Articles

Industrial Engineering

Industrial Engineering - Articles of Narayana Rao K V S S

Total Industrial Engineering - H. Yamashina

Reviewed 3.3.2011

Originally posted on
http://knol.google.com/k/industrial-engineering-and-scientific-management-in-japan



Industrial Engineering Knowledge Revision Plan - One Year Plan


January - February - March - April - May - June






Ud. 13.10.2024
Pub. 15.12.2011
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October 11, 2024

Systems and Processes - Improvement Made Easy (IME) - Improvement Management Made Easy (IMME)

Improvement of systems and processes is  required in every management function.

But improvement task in operations management will be mainly covered in this note.

Industrial engineering is also focused on improvement of systems and processes. The role of industrial engineering in operations function is large relative to other management functions. The IE aspects are also covered in this note.

This note is initiated after viewing some posts by KaizenMadeEasy profile on LinkedIn. Plain English for the Japanese word "Kaizen" is "Improvement" - Good change.

Articles on Improvement and Improvement Management


System Design Principles

https://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/11/system-design-principles.html


Systems Improvement

https://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2011/12/systems-improvement.html









Posted by at 10:25 PM 0 comments
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October 1, 2024

Management of Service Businesses - Processes

 

 Harvard Business Review (HBR) articles on service business  literature




 


1. Customer Fit in Service Operations (I)

Chase, Richard B. (1978), “Where Does the Customer Fit in a Service Operation?,” Harvard Business Review, 56 (November-December), 137-42.


2. Behavioral Sciences (I)

Chase, R.B., Dasu, S., 2001. Want to perfect your company’s service? Use behavioral science. Harvard Business Review (June), 79–84.


3. Service Factory – Productivity  (III)

Chase, R.B.,Garvin, D. (1989) The Service Factory, Harvard Business Review, July-August 1989 (lead article), pp. 61-69.


4. Service Science (I, II II)

Chesbrough, H. (2005) Toward a science of services. Harvard Business Review 83, 16–17.


5. Industrialization of Service – Productivity (III)

Levitt, Ted (1976), “Industrialization of Service,” Harvard Business Review, 54 (September-October), 63-74.


6. Designing Services that Deliver – Quality (II)

Shostack, Lynn (1984), “Designing Services that Deliver,” Harvard Business Review, 62 (January-February), 133-39.


7. Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work – Quality (II)

Heskett, James L., Thomas O. Jones, Gary W. Loveman, W. Earl Sasser, Jr., and Leonard A. Schlesinger (1994), “Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work,” Harvard Business Review (March/April), 164-72.


8. Quality Comes To Services – Quality (I & II)

Reichheld, Frederick and W. Earl Sasser, Jr. (1990), “Zero Defections: Quality Comes to Services,” Harvard Business Review, 68 (September/October), 105-11.


9. Profitable Art of Service Recovery – Quality (I & II)

Hart, Christopher W.L., W. Earl Sasser, Jr., and James L. Heskett (1990), “The Profitable Art of Service Recovery” Harvard Business Review, (July-August), 148-56.


10. Matching Supply and Demand (Productivity)

Sasser, W. Earl (1976), “Match Supply and Demand in Service Industries,” Harvard Business Review, 54 (November-Decem- ber), 133-40.


11. The Service Driven Company (Quality)

Schlesinger, Leonard A. and James L. Heskett (1991), “The Service-Driven Service Company,” Harvard Business Review (September/October), 71-81.


12. Effective Marketing for Professional Services (Growth)

Bloom, Paul N. (1984), “Effective Marketing for Professional Services,” Harvard Business Review (September/October), 102-10.


13. Capturing Value of Supplementary Services (Growth, Scope, Adjacent Spaces, Sustainable Innovation, Quality)

Anderson, James C. and James A. Narus (1995), “Capturing the Value of Supplementary Services,” Harvard Business Review, 73 (January/February), 75-83.


14. Cost Accounting Comes to Service Industries (Productivity)

Dearden, John (1978), “Cost Accounting Comes to Service Industries,” Harvard Business Review, 56 (September-Oc- tober), 132-140.


15. Production-Line Approach to Services (Productivity)

Levitt, Theodore (1972), “Production-Line Approach to Services,” Harvard Business Review, 50 (September-Octo- ber), 42-52.


16. Knowledge Based Busienss (Sustainable Innovation)

Davis, S., J. Botkin. 1994. The coming of the knowledge-based business. Harvard Bus. Rev.72 (Sept./Oct.) 165-170.


17.Exploiting the Virtual Value Chain (Productivity)

Rayport, Jeffrey F. and John J. Sviokla (1995), “Exploiting the Virtual Value Chain,” Harvard Business Review, 73 (November/December), 14-24.


18. Surviving the Revolution

Karmarkar, Uday (2004).“Will You Survive the Services Revolution?,” Harvard Business Review, 82 (June) 100–108.



20. Making Mass Customization Work

Pine, Joseph B., II, Bart Victor, and Andrew C. Boynton (1993), “Making Mass Customization Work,” Harvard Business Re- view, 71 (September/October), 108-19.


21. Service Life Cycle of Products

Potts, G.W. (1988), ªExploiting your product’s service life cycleº, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 66 No. 5, pp. 32-5.


22. Beyond Products: Services-Based Strategy

Quinn, J.B., Doorley, T.L. and Paquette, P.C. (1990), “Beyond products: services-based strategy,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68 No. 2, pp. 58-67.


23. Unconditional Service Guarantees

C.W.L. Hart, “The Power of Unconditional Service Guarantees,” Harvard Business Review, 66(4) July-August 1988, 54-62


24. Governance

Mintzberg, Henry. 1996. Managing Government, Governing Management. Harvard Business Review74(3): 75-83.


25. IT

McAfee A, Brynjolfsson E. 2008. Investing in the IT that makes a competitive difference. Harvard Business Review 86(7–8).


26. Sell Services More Profitably

Reinartz, W. and Ulaga, W. (2008) How to Sell Services More Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 86: 90-96.


27. Downstream profits

Wise, R. and Baumgartner, P. (1999) Go Downstream: The New Profit Imperative in Manufacturing. Harvard Business Review, Sept-Oct, 133-141.



29. Experience Economy

Pine, B. Joseph and James H. Gilmore (1998), Welcome to the Experience Economy.Harvard Business Review.



31. Co-opting Customer Competence

Prahalad, C.K and Venkatram Ramaswamy (2000), “Co-opting Customer Competence,” Harvard Business Review, 78 (January- February), 79-87.


32. Strategy and the New Economics of Information

Evans, Philip B. and Thomas S. Wurster (1997), “Strategy and the New Economics of Information,” Harvard Business Review, 75 (September-October), 71-82.


33. Symbols for Sale

Levy, Sidney J. (1959), “Symbols for Sale,” Harvard Business Review, 37 (July–August), 117–24.




35. Reengineering works

Hammer, M. (1990). ‘Reengineering works: Don’t automate, obliterate’, Harvard Business Review, 68(4), pp. 104–112.


36. Lean Service Machine

Swank CK. The lean service machine. Harvard Bus Review 2003; 81(10):123-129, 38.


37. Fixing Health Care

Spear SJ. Fixing health care from the inside, today. Harvard Bus Review 2005;83(9):78-91.








41. Lessons in the Service Sector

Heskett, James L. (1987), “Lessons in the Service Sector,” Harvard Business Review, 87 (March-April), 118-26.






44. Learning to love the service economy

Canton, I. D. [1984] ‘Learning to love the service economy’, Harvard Business Review, may-June, 89-97.


45. Hearing the voice of the market

Barabba, Vincent and Gerald Zaltman (1991), Hearing the Voice of the Market. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.


46. Information and Competitive Advantage

Porter, Michael E. and Victor E. Millar (1985), “How Information Gives You Competitive Advantage,” Harvard Busi- ness Review, 85 (July-August), 149-60.


47. Relationship marketing

Fournier, Susan Susan Dobscha, and David Glen Mick (1998), “Preventing the Premature Death of Relationship Marketing,” Harvard Business Review, 77 (January/February), 42-51




49. Trust and virtual organization

Handy, C. (1995). Trust and the virtual organization. Harvard Business Review, 73(3), 40-48.


50. Contextual marketing & Internet

Kenny, D., & Marshall, J. F. (2000). Contextual marketing: The real business of the Internet. Harvard Business Review, 78(6), 119-125.


51. Commoditization of Process

Davenport, T. The coming commoditization of processes. Harvard Business Rev. (June 2005), 100–108.



53. Knowledge Creating Company

Nonaka, I. The knowledge creating company. Harvard Business Review 69 (Nov–Dec 1991), 96–104.






56. Value Proposition

Anderson, J. C., Narus, J. A., & van Rossum, W. (2006). Customer value propositions in business markets. Harvard Business Review, 84, 90–99.




58. Restitching

Eisenhardt, K., and Brown, S. L. “Patching: Restitching Business Portfolios in Dynamic Markets,” Harvard Business Review (77:3), May/June 1999, pp. 72-82.


59. Coevolving

Eisenhardt, K., and Galunic, D. C. “Coevolving: At Last, a Way to Make Synergies Work,” Harvard Business Review (78:1); January/ February, 2000, pp. 91-102.




61. Strategy and the Internet

Porter, M. (2001) “Strategy and the Internet,” Harvard Business Review, March-April 2001, pp. 63-78.


62. Value Disciplines

Treacy, M., and Wiersema, F. “Customer Intimacy and Other Value Disciplines,” Harvard Business Review (71:1), January/February 1993, pp. 84-93.






65. Competitor collaboration

Hamel, G., Doz, Y. L., & Prahalad, C. K. 1989. Collaborate with your competitors-and win. Harvard Business Review, 67(1): 133-140.









70. Planning as Learning

DeGeus, Arie P. (1988), “Planning as Learning,” Harvard Business Review, 66 (March/April), 70-74.


71. Competing on the Eight Dimensions of Quality

Garvin, David A. (1987), “Competing on the Eight Dimensions of Quality,” Harvard Business Review, 57, 173-84.


72. Customer-Centered Brand Management

Rust, R. T., V. A. Zeithaml, K. N. Lemon. 2004. Customer-centered brand management. Harvard Bus. Rev. 82(9) 110-118.



74. Cultural Issues

Nonaka, Ikujiro (2007) The Knowledge-Creating Company. HBR.

M. Baba and J. Gluesing (1992), Knowledge creation:  Japan vs. the West, HBR 70(1):157-58.


75. Supply Chain

Bowersox, Donald J.  1990.  The Strategic Benefits of Logistics Alliances.  HBR 90(4):4-11.


76.  Service Worker Productivity

Drucker, Peter F.  1991.  The New Productivity Challenge.  HBR 91, November/December, 70-79.


77. Service Analytics

Davenport, T., Mule, L. D., & Lucker, J. (2011), Know what your customers want before they do. Harvard Business Review, 89, 84-92.


78. Service Excellence

Frei, F. X. 2008. The four things a service business must get right. Harvard Business Review 86(4): 70–

80.


79.  Value-cocreation

Ramaswamy, V., Gouillart, F., 2010, Building the cocreative enterprise, Harvard Business Review, Volume 88 (10): 100-109.


80. Customer Experience

Meyer, Christopher and Andre Schwager (2007), “Understanding Customer Experience,” Harvard Business Review, February 117–26.


81. Customer-Employee Interactions

Fleming, J. H., Coffman, C., & Harter, J. K. (2005). Manage your human sigma. Harvard Business Review, 83(7/8), 106–114.



83. Self-Service

Moon, Y. and Frei, F.X. (2000), “Exploding the self-service myth’’, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 78 No. 3, pp. 26-7.


84. Customers

Dougherty D, Marty A (2008). What service customers really want? Harvard Business Review, September: p. 22.


85. Customer loyalty

O’Brien, Louise and Charles Jones, “Do Rewards Really Create Loyalty?”, Harvard Business Review (May – June, 1995), 75–82.


86. Strategy

Allmendinger, G.; Lombreglia, R.; Four Strategies for the Age of Smart Services. Harvard Business Review, Oct2005, Vol. 83 Issue 10, pp.131-145.


87. Customer Satisfaction

Taylor, A. (2002, July). Driving customer satisfaction. Harvard Business Review, 24-25.


88. Quality and Productivity Tradeoff

Frei, Frances X. (2006), “Breaking the trade-off between efficiency and service,” Harvard Business Review, 84 (11), 92-101.


89. Service Innovation

Thomke, Stefan (2003), “R&D Comes to Services,” Harvard Business Review, 81 (4), 70-79.



91. Employees and Customers

Chun, Rosa, and Gary Davies. “Employee Happiness Isn’t Enough to Satisfy Customers.” Harvard Business Review 87.4 (2009): 19.


92. Service Quality and Customer Trust

Bell, Simon J. and Andreas B. Eisingerich (2007), ―Work With Me,‖ Harvard Business Review, 85 (March), 32.


93. Productivity

Merrifield, R., Calhoun, J., & Stevens, D. (2008). The next revolution in productivity. Harvard Business Review, June, 72–80.


94. Global Networks

Bartlett, C., & Ghoshal, S. 1989. Managing across borders: The transnational solution. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.











100. Not-for-profit service

Harvey, P. D., and Snyder, J. D. (1987) Charities need a bottom line too. Harvard Business Review (January-February). Harvard Business Publishing, Boston.


 https://service-science.info/archives/2210























Posted by at 12:50 AM 1 comments
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Production Line Approach Service System Design

 


Industrialization of services business model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialization_of_services_business_model





Interesting Article


Creating Customer Value through Industrialized Intimacy

To really serve customers requires a deep understanding of their needs. It also requires customization, personalization and empathy.

by Peter Kolesar, Garrett van Rysin, and Wayne Cutler  

July 1, 1998

Consumer & retail/ Third Quarter 1998 / Issue 12

https://www.strategy-business.com/article/19127



Both manufacturing and services have their origins in craft production -- the village smith and cooper, the town barber and the household servant. More than a century ago, with the Industrial Revolution, manufacturers took great strides forward in productivity and quality by abandoning the craft production model in favor of mass production, standardization, division of labor and control, while service providers largely continued operating in a craft production mode. In the late 1960's, some service establishments began to move toward industrialization. Theodore Levitt , observing these trends, argued for bringing factory management concepts into the service industries -- the "industrialization of services" as he called it. 



https://typeset.io/papers/production-line-approach-to-service-4jk536rv2y

shows limited information on the paper AI application on the paper


Applicability of Lean Thinking in Service Industries

Khalil Amiroune

Entrepreneur

March 6, 2016

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/applicability-lean-thinking-service-industries-khalil-amiroune/





Posted by at 12:42 AM 0 comments

September 30, 2024

Product Design and Process Selection—Services - Review Notes

Main Section 

  • The Nature of Services

  • An Operational Classification of Services

  • Designing Service Organizations

  • Structuring the Service Encounter: Service-System Design Matrix

  • Service Blueprinting and Fail-Safing

  • Three Contrasting Service Designs

  • Applying Behavioral Science to Service Encounters

  • New Service Development Process

  • Service Guarantees as Design Drivers


Services are different from manufacturing, with the key service difference being the interaction of the customer in the delivery process. Service design is no longer considered to be an art form as logical approaches to better design and management of service systems are emerging.

In a facilities-based service, the customer must go to the service facility. In contrast, in a field-based service, the production and consumption of the service takes place in the customer's environment. Internal services refer to services required to support the activities of the larger organization. There is a blurring of manufacturing and service firms since the manufacturer product always has a certain percentage of service content. Services are also seen as the next source of competitive advantage for firms.


The Nature of Services - Seven Generalizations
Chase et al (11th Edition)

1. Everyone is an expert on services.
It means many more people understand how services are delivered and have an opinion how they should be delivered.
2. Services are idiosyncratic.
People want services done differently at different times and places.
3. Quality of work alone is not quality of service.
Time spent is also a parameter.
4. Most services have tangible and intangible attributes.
5. High contact services are experienced.
6. Effective management of services requires understanding of marketing aspects, operations aspects as well as aspects of service personnel involved.
7. Services often take different forms of encounters involving face-to-face, telephone, electromechanical, and mail interactions.

  • An Operational Classification of Services
The item that operationally distinguishes one service system from another in its operation function,  is the extent of customer contact in the creation of the service.

In services we also consider the amount of customer contact or the physical presence of the customer in the system. Service systems range from those with a high degree of customer contact to those with a low degree of customer contact.

  • Designing Service Organizations

Service strategy begins by selecting the performance priorities.

1. Treatment of the customer in terms of friendliness and helpfulness.
2. Speed and convenience of service.
3. Price of service
4. Variety of services offered by the organization
5. Quality of the tangible goods that are used to provide the service including the service facility and interaction spaces.
6. Skills of service personnel
  • Structuring the Service Encounter: Service-System Design Matrix

Service encounters can be configured in a number of different ways. 



The service-system design matrix includes six common alternatives. Flowcharting, like in manufacturing process design, is the standard tool for service process design. The flowchart, or service blueprint, emphasizes the importance of design. 

  • Service Blueprinting and Fail-Safing


Poka-yoke systems applied to services prevent mistakes from becoming service defects.

  • Three Contrasting Service Designs


Approaches to services include the production line approach, the self-service approach, and the personal attention approach. 


Production Line Approach 

Illustration:     Macdonald Item Preparation Process

Self-service approach  

Illustration:  Babk ATM

Website interaction by customers - Amazom

Personal attention approach. 

Illustration:  Nordstrom Department Stores - Service Design

Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company - Service Design

  • Service Guarantees as Design Drivers


Service guarantees are not only a marketing tool for services but, from an operations perspective, these guarantees can be used as an improvement incentive and can focus the firm's delivery system on things it must do well to satisfy the customer. 


Waiting Lines

Understanding waiting lines or queues and learning how to manage them is one of the most important areas in operations management. Queuing theory is used in both manufacturing and service organizations to understand queues and to arrive at solutions to eliminate or minimize them.

The waiting line system consists of six major components: the source population, the way customers arrive at the service facility, the physical waiting line itself, the way customers are selected from the line, the characteristics of the service facility, and the condition of the customer exiting the system.

Arrivals at a service system may be drawn from a finite or limited customer pool or from a population that is large enough in relation to the service system so that changes do not significantly affect the system probabilities.

Another determinant of waiting line formation is the arrival characteristics of the queue members. The arrivals are far more controllable than normally recognized. Coupons, discounts, sales, and other methods can control demands on a system.

Queue lines can vary in length, in the number of lines used, and in the queue discipline or rules used for determining the order of service to customers. First come, first serviced is the most common priority rule. The service facility itself, with its particular flow and configuration can influence the queue. Computer spreadsheets are used to arrive at answers to waiting line problems. Computer simulations can also be used to arrive at solutions of more complex or dependent waiting line situations. Waiting line problems present challenges to management to attempt to eliminate them.

Service Blueprinting - The Process
https://nraomtr.blogspot.com/2023/07/service-blueprinting-process.html 

Chapter outline

The Nature of Services
Service Businesses and Internal Services
Facilities-Based Services Defined
Field-Based Services Defined
A Customer-Centered View of Service Management

An Operational Classification of Services
High and Low Degree of Customer Contact Defined

Designing Service Organizations
Service Strategy: Focus and Advantage

Structuring the Service Encounter: Service-System Design Matrix
Strategic Uses of the Matrix

Service Blueprinting and Fail-Safing
Service Blueprint Defined
Poka-Yokes Defined

Three Contrasting Service Designs
The Production-Line Approach
The Self-Service Approach
The Personal-Attention Approach

Applying Behavioral Science to Service Encounters

New Service Development Process

Service Guarantees as Design Drivers
Service Guarantee Defined

Conclusion

Case: Pizza U.S.A.: An Exercise in Translating Customer Requirements into Process Design Requirements.

Case: Contact Centers Should Take a Lesson From Local Businesses


Outline of the technical notes on Waiting lines

Queues Defined

Economics of the Waiting Line Problem
Cost-Effectiveness Balance
The Practical View of Waiting Lines

The Queuing System
Queuing System Defined
Customer Arrivals
Arrival Rate Defined
Exponential Distribution Defined
Poisson Distribution Defined
Distribution of Arrivals
The Queuing System: Factors
Service Rate Defined
Exit

Waiting Line Models

Approximating Customer Waiting Time

Computer Simulation of Waiting Lines

Conclusion


MBA Core Management Knowledge - One Year Revision Schedule



Sources

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072983906/student_view0/technical_note7/


Summaries of all Chapters of Operation Management



Journal of Operations Management
Volume 25, Issue 2, March 2007, Pages 364-374
The emergence of service operations management as an academic discipline

Janelle Heineke, Mark M. Davis 


https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2006.11.003

Abstract

The service sector surpassed  50% of the U.S. economy in the 1950s.  There emerged a growing demand for business schools to develop both research agendas and courses in service operations. Beginning at the Harvard Business School in the early 1970s, courses in service operations have evolved. This article traces the evolution of service operations from  its early years as an academic discipline in business schools to the present, identifying “pioneers” in service operations who truly blazed a previously unmarked trail that many have since followed. 

By 2000, services comprised almost 80% of U.S. employment. This rapid growth was caused by several factors including changing population lifestyles, deregulation, and new and improved infrastructure including the widespread availability of new technologies.




Operations management for services



Ud. 1.10.,23.9.2024, 30.7.2023
Pub. 7.12.2014










Posted by at 5:30 PM 3 comments
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